The history of archery

Archery, or the use of the bow and arrow, was developed by the end of the Upper Paleolithic or earlier. Archery has been an important military and hunting skill for over 10,000 years and features prominently in the mythologies of many cultures. Archers, whether on foot, in chariots, or mounted, were a staple of most armed forces until they were gradually supplemented and then replaced by firearms during the late medieval and early modern periods. Gunpowder, first developed in China in the 9th century AD, was originally used to improve projectile weapons, including arrows. Firearms, spread throughout Eurasia by the gunpowder empires, gradually reduced the importance of archery in warfare.

Nevertheless, archery is still practiced today, even in the training regimes of certain special forces. It is also a very popular sport, most commonly in the form of target archery, but in some places also for hunting.

prehistory

Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic

The oldest known evidence of arrows comes from the South African site of Sibudu Cave, where bone and stone points were found that were thought to be arrowheads and dated to about 60,000 to 70,000 years ago.

The earliest likely arrowheads outside of Africa were discovered in 2020 in Fa Hien Cave in Sri Lanka. It was dated to 48,000 years ago. "Bow and arrow hunting at the Sri Lanka site likely focused on monkeys and smaller animals like squirrels," says Langley. Remains of these creatures were found in the same sediment as the bone points.

At Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets embedded in a skull and in the chest cavity of another skeleton indicate the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons about 10,000 years ago.

In the Sahara, Mesolithic rock art on the Tassili Plateau shows people carrying bows from 5,000 BC or earlier.

Based on indirect evidence, the bow also appears to have appeared or reappeared later in Eurasia around the Upper Paleolithic.

The earliest definitive remains of a bow and arrow from Europe are possible fragments from Germany, found in Mannheim-Vogelstang and Stellmoor, dating from 17,500 to 18,000 years ago, and 11,000 years ago. Azilian points in the Grotte du Bichon in Switzerland, next to the remains of a bear and a hunter, with flint fragments in the bear's third vertebra, suggest the use of arrows 13,500 years ago.

Further early evidence of archery in Europe comes from Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg Valley, north of Hamburg. They were associated with artifacts from the late Paleolithic period (11,000–9,000 BC). The arrows were made of pinewood and consisted of a main shaft and a 15 to 20-centimeter-long foreshaft with a flint tip. They had shallow grooves at the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow.

The oldest known definitive bows come from the Holmegård Marsh in Denmark. In the 1940s, two bows were found there, dating to approximately 8,000 BC. The Holmegaard bows are made of elm and have flat arms and a D-shaped middle section. The middle section is biconvex. The entire bow is 1.50 m long. Holmegaard-type bows were in use until the Bronze Age. The convexity of the middle section has decreased over time.

Mesolithic pointed shafts have been found in England, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. They were often quite long, up to 120 cm, and were made of hazel, birch, and other small woody shoots. Some still retain flint arrowheads. Others have blunt wooden ends for hunting birds and small game. The ends show traces of fletching, which were secured with birch tar.

The oldest depictions of combat found in Iberian cave art of the Mesolithic depict battles between archers. A group of three archers surrounded by a group of four is found at Cueva del Roure, Morella la Vella, Castellón, Valencia. A depiction of a larger battle (possibly dating from the Early Neolithic period), in which eleven archers are attacked by seventeen running archers, is found at Les Dogue, Ares del Maestrat, Castellón, Valencia. In the Val del Charco del Agua Amarga, Alcañiz, Aragon, seven archers with feathers on their heads flee from a group of eight archers on pursuit.

Archery appears to have arrived in the Americas via Alaska as early as 6000 BC, with the Arctic tradition of small tools around 2500 BC, spreading south into the temperate zones as early as 2000 BC and becoming widely known among the indigenous peoples of North America from about 500 AD.

Neolithic

The oldest Neolithic bow known from Europe was found in anaerobic layers dating between 7,400 and 7,200 BC, the earliest occupation level in the lake settlement at La Draga, Banyoles, Girona, Spain. The intact specimen is 1.08 m short, has a D-shaped cross-section, and is made of yew wood. Stone wrist guards, interpreted as display versions of bracers, form a defining component of the Beaker culture, and arrowheads are also frequently found in Beaker graves. European Neolithic fortifications, arrowheads, injuries, and representations indicate that archery was an important form of interpersonal violence during the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in Europe.

Bronze Age

Chariot-borne archers became a defining feature of Middle Bronze Age warfare, from Europe through East Asia to India. During the Middle Bronze Age, with the development of massed infantry tactics and the use of chariots for shock tactics or as prestigious command vehicles, archery appears to have declined in importance in European warfare. Around the same time, with the Seima-Turbino phenomenon and the spread of the Andronovo culture, mounted archery, pending the massive use of weapons, became a defining feature of Eurasian nomadic cultures and a foundation of their military success. Crossbows were developed in China, and Han Dynasty writers attributed China's success against nomadic invaders to the massive use of crossbows, which was first definitively attested at the Battle of Ma-Ling in 341 BC.

Ancient history

Ancient civilizations, particularly the Persians, Parthians, Egyptians, Nubians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese, fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Arrows were devastating against massed formations, and the use of archers often proved decisive. The Sanskrit term for archery, Dhanurveda, referred to martial arts in general. Mounted archers were used as the primary fighting force, including by the Cimmerians and Mongols.

North Africa

The ancient Egyptian people began practicing archery as early as 5,000 years ago. Archery was widespread during the time of the earliest pharaohs and was practiced for both hunting and warfare. Legendary figures from the tombs of Thebes are depicted giving "instructions in archery." Some Egyptian deities are also associated with archery. The "Nine Bows" were a conventional representation of Egypt's external enemies. One of the oldest depictions of the Nine Bows is on the seated statue of Pharaoh Djoser (3rd Dynasty, 27th century BC). Many of the archers active in Egypt originated from Nubia and were commonly called Medjay. They transformed from a mercenary force during their initial service in Egypt in the Middle Kingdom to an elite paramilitary unit of the New Kingdom. The Nubians were so effective as archers that Nubia as a whole was called Ta-Seti, or Land of the Bow, by the ancient Egyptians.

Mesopotamia

The Assyrians and Babylonians used bows and arrows extensively for hunting and warfare. The empires of ancient Mesopotamia formed the first standing armies dedicated exclusively to warfare. This included soldiers trained and employed as archers. The archers served as an integral part of the military and were deployed on foot and in chariots.

The Kassite chariot warriors relied heavily on the bow. The Nuzi texts list the bows and the number of arrows assigned to the chariot crew. Archery was essential to the role of the light, horse-drawn chariot as a vehicle of warfare.

The Old Testament contains several references to archery as a skill identified with the ancient Hebrews. Xenophon describes long bows used to great effect in the Corduene.

Arrowheads with three blades (trilobate) have been found in the United Arab Emirates, dating from 100 BC to 150 AD.

Eurasian Steppe

The compound bow was first produced in the Eurasian Steppe during the Bronze Age and spread from there to the Old World. Nomads from the Eurasian Steppe are believed to have played a significant role in introducing the compound bow to other civilizations, including Mesopotamia, Iran, India, East Asia, and Europe. Arrowheads have been found from the earliest chariot burials at Lake Krivoye, part of the Sintashta culture dating from between 2100 and 1700 BC. These people are also believed to have invented chariots with spoked wheels, and chariot archery became an essential part of the militaries of the early Indo-Europeans.

It is believed that the domestication of horses and horse archery originated in the Eurasian steppes. This revolutionized warfare and the practice of archery.

India

The use of bow and arrow has been extensively documented throughout the history of the Indian subcontinent.

The Paleolithic paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters depict archery. Vedic hymns in the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda emphasize the use of bow and arrow. The second Veda, the Yajurveda, contains Dhanurveda (Dhanus "bow" and Veda "knowledge"), an ancient treatise on the science of archery and its use in warfare. The existence of Dhanurveda, or "science of archery," in ancient times is evident from references made in several works of ancient literature. The Viṣṇu Purāṇa refers to it as one of the eighteen learned branches of knowledge, while the Mahābhārata mentions that it has sutras like other Vedas. Śukranīti describes it as the "Upaveda of the Yajurveda," which has five artistic or practical aspects. The Dhanurveda enumerates the rules of archery and describes the use of weapons and the training of the army. Vasiṣṭha's Dhanurveda not only provides an account of the training of archers but also describes the different types of bows and arrows and the manufacturing process. It contains detailed accounts of training methods in early India, which are considered essential martial arts in early India.

The compound bow in India was used in the 2nd millennium BC. The bow was used extensively on foot as well as in chariots. It was incorporated into the standing armies of the Mahajanapadas and used in mounted warfare on horses, camels, and elephants with a howdah. The importance of archery continued into ancient times during the Mauryan Empire. The Arthashastra, a military treaty established by Chanakya during the Mauryan era, deals in detail with the importance and practice of archery. It also mentions an archery school in Taxila, which was attended by 103 princes from various kingdoms of the empire.

During the Gupta Empire, mounted archery was largely replaced by foot archers. This contrasted with the nomadic mounted armies of Central Asia, such as the Iranians, Scythians, Parthians, Kushans, and Hunas. Later, Indian kingdoms maintained and fielded large numbers of mounted archers. The use of bow and arrow remained the mainstay of most Indian armies until the advent of firearms, introduced by Islamic gunpowder empires.

Greco-Roman Antiquity

The people of Crete practiced archery, and Cretan mercenary archers were in high demand. Crete was known for its unbroken tradition of archery.

The Greek god Apollo is the god of archery, also of the plague and the sun, metaphorically perceived as shooting invisible arrows. Artemis, goddess of the hunt, Heracles and Odysseus, and many other mythological figures are often depicted with a bow.

During the invasion of India, Alexander the Great personally took command of the shield-bearing guards, foot soldiers, archers, Agrianians, and horse-spearmen and led them against the Kamboja clans - the Aspasioi of the Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley, and the Assakenois of the Swat and Buner valleys.

The early Romans had very few, if any, archers. As their empire grew, they recruited auxiliary archers from other nations. Julius Caesar's armies in Gaul included Cretan archers, and his enemy Vercingetorix ordered "all the archers, of which there were a very large number in Gaul, to be gathered together." By the 4th century, archers armed with powerful compound bows were an integral part of Roman armies throughout the empire. After the fall of the Western Empire, the Romans came under severe pressure from the highly skilled mounted archers of the Hunnic invaders, and later, Eastern Roman armies relied heavily on mounted archery.

East Asia

For millennia, archery has played a central role in Chinese history, particularly in ancient Chinese culture and philosophy. Archery was one of the Six Noble Arts of the Zhou Dynasty (1146–256 BC). Archery was a virtue for Chinese emperors; Confucius himself was an archery instructor; and Lie Zi (a Daoist philosopher) was an avid archer. Because the cultures associated with Chinese society span a wide geographical and temporal range, the techniques and equipment associated with Chinese archery vary.

In East Asia, Joseon Korea adopted a military service examination system from China, and South Korea remains a particularly strong performer in Olympic archery competitions.

Decline in archery

Early firearms were inferior in rate of fire (one Tudor English author expects eight shots from the English longbow in the time it takes a "gunman in readiness" to fire five from a musket), and François Bernier reports that well-trained horse archers at the Battle of Samugarh in 1658 "fired six times before a musketeer could fire twice." Firearms were also very vulnerable to wet weather. However, they had a longer effective range (up to 200 meters for the longbow, up to 600 meters for the musket), greater penetration, and were tactically superior in the general situation of soldiers being shot at. They also penetrated steel armor without the need for special musculature. Armed armies could thus deliver superior firepower, and highly skilled archers became obsolete on the battlefield. The Battle of Cerignola in 1503 was won by Spain primarily through the use of matchlock firearms. This was the first time a major battle in Europe was won through the use of firearms.

The last regular unit armed with bows was the Archers' Company of the Honourable Artillery Company, ironically part of the oldest regular unit in England armed with gunpowder weapons. The last recorded use of bows in battle in England appears to have been an engagement at Bridgnorth. In October 1642, during the English Civil War, a militia armed with bows was effective against muskets. The last use of the bow in battle in Britain is believed to have been at the Battle of Tippermuir in Scotland on September 1, 1644, when James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, defeated a Scottish confederate army. Montrose's army included archers.

Archery continued in some areas where weapon ownership was restricted, such as in the Scottish Highlands during the repression following the decline of the Jacobite cause and among the Cherokees after the Trail of Tears. The Tokugawa shogunate severely restricted the import and manufacture of weapons and promoted the traditional martial arts of the samurai. Towards the end of the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877, some rebels reverted to bow and arrow. Archery remained an important part of military training in Korea until 1894 and in China until 1904.

In the steppes of Eurasia, archery continued to play an important role in warfare, although it was limited to mounted archery. The Ottoman Empire still fielded auxiliary cavalry, which was known for using bows fired from horseback. This practice continued among the Ottoman subject nations, although the empire itself was a proponent of early firearms. However, mounted archers remained in the Ottoman order of battle until the reforms of the Ottoman army after 1826. The art of traditional archery remained a minority in Turkey for sport and hunting until the 1820s, but knowledge of compound bow construction fell into disuse with the death of the last archer in the 1930s. The rest of the Middle East also lost the continuity of its archery tradition at this time.

An exception to this trend was the North American Comanche culture, where mounted archery with muzzle-loading weapons remained competitive. Repeating firearms, however, were again superior, and the Comanches adopted them when they could. Bows remained effective hunting weapons for skilled archers, used in part by all Native Americans on the Great Plains for buffalo hunting, as long as there were buffalo to hunt. The last Comanche hunt took place in 1878 and ended in failure.

Revitalization for leisure

The British initiated a significant revival of archery as an upper-class pursuit from about 1780 to 1840. Early recreational archery clubs included the Finsbury Archers, founded in 1688, and the Kilwinning Papingo. The latter held competitions in which archers had to remove a wooden parrot from the top of an abbey tower. The Company of Scottish Archers, founded in 1676, is one of the oldest sporting organizations in the world. However, it remained a small and scattered pastime until a fashionable aristocratic revival in the late 18th century. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, founded the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781 under the patronage of George, Prince of Wales.

Archery societies were founded throughout the country, each with its own strict criteria and elaborate costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events for the nobility, including flags, music, and 21 gun salutes for participants. The clubs were "the outdoor parlors of the great country houses" and thus played an important role in the social networks of the local elites. In addition to its emphasis on display and status, the sport was notable for its popularity with women. Young women could not only participate in the competitions but also maintain and display their femininity. Thus, archery emerged as a forum for introductions, flirtation, and romance. It was often deliberately modeled after a medieval tournament, with titles and laurel wreaths awarded as rewards to the victor. From 1789 onward, general meetings were held at which local lodges met to standardize the rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a quintessentially British tradition, dating back to the lore of Robin Hood, and served as a patriotic form of entertainment during times of political tension in Europe. The societies were also elitist, and the new middle-class bourgeoisie were excluded from the clubs due to their lack of social status.

After the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes and was described as a nostalgic reinterpretation of pre-industrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel Ivanhoe, in which the hero Locksley won an archery tournament.

A modern sport

In the 1840s, the first attempts were made to transform archery into a modern sport. The first meeting of the Grand National Archery Society was held in York in 1844. Over the next decade, the extravagant and festive practices of the past were gradually toned down, and the rules were standardized as the "York Round." Horace A. Ford helped improve archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National eleven times in a row and published an influential guide to the sport in 1856.

Towards the end of the 19th century, participation in the sport declined as alternative sports such as croquet and tennis became increasingly popular among the middle classes. By 1889, only 50 archery clubs remained in Great Britain, but it was included as a sport at the 1900 Olympic Games in Paris.

In the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. Founded in 1961, the Pope and Young Club, named in honor of Pope and his friend Arthur Young, became one of the leading bowhunting and conservation organizations in North America. The club was established as a non-profit scientific organization and modeled itself on the renowned Boone and Crockett Club. It promoted responsible bowhunting by promoting quality and fair play.

In Korea, the transformation of archery into a healthy pastime was spearheaded by Emperor Gojong and is the basis of a popular modern sport. The Japanese continue to manufacture and use their unique traditional equipment. Among the Cherokees, the popular use of their traditional longbows has never died out.

In China, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a resurgence in interest among craftsmen in making bows and arrows, as well as in practicing traditional Chinese-style techniques.

Today, mounted archery continues to be practiced as a popular competitive sport in modern Hungary and some Asian countries, but it is not recognized as an international competition. Archery is the national sport of the Kingdom of Bhutan.

Beginning in the 1920s, professional engineers became interested in archery, previously the preserve of traditional craftspeople. They spearheaded the commercial development of new bow forms, including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms now dominate modern Western archery. Traditional bows are in the minority. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in traditional bowyer bibles. Modern archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bowhunter and bowmaker.